The Beginning
When people hear the words "Information Technology," the first things that come
to mind are computers and the Internet. It may also bring up words like "network,"
"intranet," "server," "firewall," "security," as well as more arcane expressions such
as "router," "T-1," "Ethernet," or the mysterious and exotic-sounding "VoIP"
(pronounced "voyp").
In fact, information technology is all of these things, and more. It's hardly new,
however. Information technology is as old as the brain itself, if you think of the
brain as an information processor. As far as I.T. being a science, even that goes
back as far as the earliest attempts to communicate and store information.
And that is essentially what information technology is: the communication and
storage of information, along with the ability to process and make use of the
information stored. In this chapter, we'll begin with a brief history of I.T., what it
comprises today, and the different major types of I.T. systems available today.
A Short History of Information Technology
As human societies have grown in size and complexity, so has the need to collect,
store and transmit information. While it could be argued that brains represent a
form of “bio-information technology,” the Greek word “ ” - from which we
get the word “technology” – really refers to scientific or mechanical knowledge,
particularly that which involves the use of tools. Therefore, we’ll begin our journey
with human’s first attempts to record and transmit knowledge through mechanical
means.
might think of as “information technology.” Using a combination of tools that
included manganese “crayons” and clay that was colored with various pigments,
early humans left these images on the walls of a cave near Lascaux, France and on
cliffs in the Algerian Sahara. These have been dated as being approximately 18,000
and 8,000 years old respectively. Unfortunately, there is no way to be certain
exactly what message was being communicated (a problem our own descendants
15,000 years from now may very well encounter!)
Since the images depict animals that were commonly hunted at the time, and given
the importance of game animals to a hunting-gathering culture, it’s possible that
such images were attempts to present information about such game, or part of a
rite designed to ensure a successful hunt.
The invention of writing systems – including pictograms such as hieroglyphics,
alphabetic writing and “syllabic” systems – seems to have taken place almost at the
same time as the development of agriculture. Agriculture introduced such formerly
unknown concepts as land ownership, advanced trade and the accumulation of
wealth, which in turn led to more complex societal structures. As you might expect,
this necessitated more detailed and efficient record-keeping. Alphabetic writing has
a substantial advantage over pictograms (hieroglyphs), because a relatively limited
number of symbols (letters) can be used over and over in infinite combination to
communicate nearly anything. (As you will see later, modern I.T. uses only two of
these symbols!)
Preserving and storing such information posed certain challenges; information
either had to be inscribed on stone or clay tablets (which were heavy) or animal
skins, wax tablets or papyrus (which weren’t durable).
The Hellenistic World
The Classical Greeks were the first people of record to attempt to find scientific,
rational explanations for natural phenomena. Some of the earliest proto-computers
known were mechanical devices developed by the Greeks. One of these was a form
of abacus (which also developed and was used in ancient China). The device
facilitated and simplified mathematical calculation.
Early Programmable Devices
By the time the gradual break-up and fall of the Roman Empire was complete in the
year 476 C.E., scientific and technological advances in the Western world had
ground to a halt. While much of the scientific knowledge of the Greeks was
preserved by Irish monks and Arab scholars, it wasn’t until the fourteenth century
that principles of engineering were rediscovered and applied to information. The
first of these was of course the printing press. Although the concept of movable
type printing had been developed in China some four hundred years earlier, it was
Gutenberg’s device in 1447 that revolutionized communications, making it easier
and faster to record and disseminate information than ever before. The first truly
programmable device would not come along for another 354 years, however.
The Jacquard Loom of 1801 was a product of the Industrial Revolution. This
invention used a series of specially punched paper cards that functional as
templates, allowing for the automatic weaving of highly intricate patterns. Those
punch cards became very significant to computing in the 1950’s, 60’s and 70’s.
The next development was Charles Babbage’s “Analytical Machine” – a fully-
programmable computer that unfortunately was never actually built. Babbage
worked on designs from 1837 until his passing in 1871. This steam-powered
mechanism would have also utilized punch cards, with a central processing unit
(CPU) and a form of memory storage in the form of a system of pegs inserted into
rotating barrels.
The Analytical Machine would have been capable of storing 1,000 numbers of up to
fifty digits each, and perform six different mathematical operations, including the
calculation of square roots. Babbage’s ideas were incorporated into early electronic
computing devices being developed in the late 1930’s and 1940’s, although not all
of these were actually programmable. The first truly programmable computers –
able to store and use information – did not come into common use until the 1950’s,
and yes – made use of punch cards (those born before 1965 may remember
playing with them).
Communications and Information Storage
Other developments related to information technology involved major advances in
communication, such as the telegraph – which was really an electronic
improvement on ancient methods such as drums and smoke signals, and later
semaphore communication. The first telegraph was actually built in 1809, but the
technology matured during the mid-nineteenth century with the development of
methods whereby actual images could be transmitted electronically (1843).
With the laying of the Transatlantic Cable in 1866, communication that once took
weeks or months could be accomplished in minutes. Further advances included the
development of wireless communication in the 1890’s, and the combination of this
technology with the typewriter to create the teletype machine in the early 20th
century.
Thomas Edison was the first to come up with a way to store sound information with
the invention of the phonograph in 1877, but it was really the development of audio
magnetic recording tape in 1926 by German inventor Fritz Pfleumer that would
become a method of storing information electronically. Magnetic tape was initially
used for recording sound. The technology finally arrived in the U.S. after the Second World War, and early computer engineers soon found uses for it. Magnetic
audio tape was used to store data by the UNIVAC I computer of 1951.
What is interesting is how the information was stored – which differs little from the
basic way information is stored today. If you were to listen to a magnetic tape on
which computer data was stored, you would hear a series of beeps of varying
lengths – but consisting of only two pitches. These are basically “ones” and “zeroes”
– the building blocks of all computer data.
Today, we are able to store, process and transmit more information than ever
before in history, using nothing more than two symbols!
Information Technology Since 1980
The development during the 1970’s of integrated circuits and the microprocessor
were the advances that began the real revolution in computing. Before the 1970’s,
computers were huge, extremely expensive, and relatively slow.
Integrated circuits and microprocessors made possible the development of smaller,
faster machines that were priced within the reach of more people. “Personal
computers” had actually been around since the early 1950’s (computing pioneer
Edmund Berkeley published plans for a PC which he called “Simon” in Radio
Electronics magazine in 1950 and ’51). However, the Apple II, released in April of
1977 (price: about $1300) was the first modern desktop computer featuring an
interactive, graphical interface made widely available and affordable to the general
public.1
The other significant development came in the early 1990’s when a system of little-
known academic and military networks dating from the late 1960’s and early 1980’s
suddenly exploded into popularity. The World Wide Web, or Internet, has changed
the way people access information, communicate and even entertainment itself.
Separate devices such as telephones, televisions and cameras are now becoming
single devices that encompass all of these functions. Meanwhile, the power and
capability of computers continues to go up while the cost of the technology
continues to drop. As you’ll learn later on, this has tremendous implications for your
small business.
Information Technology Today
The smallest, lowest-powered laptop computers available today have millions of
times more raw processing power and storage than the room-sized UNIVAC I – and
are light years beyond large desktop computers of as little as ten years ago. In
addition to desktop and laptop computers, hand-held devices such as PDAs
(Personal Digital Assistants) allow people to take digital pictures and film clips,
access their e-mail and the World Wide Web, input text information and even play
video games! Not only do technology prices continue to fall, the technology itself
continues to shrink in physical size as well.
This is a good thing, because the processing and memory demands of software
programs – more properly known as applications – continue to grow exponentially.
A good example of this would be a typical word processing program. A version
released in 1993 could run very well on as little as 256 kilobytes of RAM (Random
Access Memory) with a low-powered 16 mHz processor. Today’s version of that
same application requires over one hundred times the memory and perhaps as
much as two hundred times the processing power. Even the operating system
software – the set of applications that make your computer operate in the first
place (such as Windows XP or Mac OS X) has increased its appetite for memory. In
the old days (early-to-mid 1990’s), operating software might have used less than a
megabyte of RAM. Today, just the operating system (OS) can eat up to 250
megabytes – and that’s before you even start running any applications!
In addition to the growing demands of applications, the products of those
applications – known as “files” – have expanded in size as well. Word processing
documents can get extremely large when high-quality graphics are added, as well –
something to think about if your small business is involved in publishing and/or
graphic design.
Fortunately, the cost of both RAM and hard drives (where information is stored) has
come down in cost considerably in recent years.
Types of Information Tools and Media
This subject by itself could easily fill a book, since information technology is so
ubiquitous. Chances are, you and your business will need more than one of these
tools, but will probably not need all of them.
Personal Computer
This is the heart of your small business I.T. system. You’ll find a plethora of models
and options to choose from. New, low-end, entry-level machines today start at
under $400, and include a processor running at 1.8 gigaHertz (Ghz), 256 MB
(expandable up to 3 gigabyte [GB]) or RAM and an 80 GB hard drive. On the upper
end are the latest Apple machines with 3 Ghz quadruple processors, 1 GB RAM
(expandable to 8 GB), and a 250 GB hard drive. (Incidentally, if you’re not familiar
with terms such as “gigabyte,” gigahertz” etc., don’t worry. These are defined in
the glossary at the end of this book.)
The decision of whether to go with a PC (IBM-compatible) or a Mac (Apple) is less
of an issue that it was just a few years ago. The newest Apple computers use the
Intel chip used by the most popular PCs. In addition, Apple computers can now run
Mac OS X side-by-side with Microsoft Windows. It’s really a matter of cost – a new,
top-of-the-line Apple runs about $3200, is not easy to upgrade, and will probably
be obsolete within two years. On the other hand, if you’re doing high-end video editing, high-resolution 3-d animation and special effects, you won’t find a faster
machine than an Apple.
PCs become obsolete almost as fast as their Apple counterparts, but are much more
easily upgraded. In fact, it’s not difficult to build your own custom PC from easily-
obtained components. There are also several companies that will do this for you
(see Appendix).
Bottom line – for most businesses, a mid-range PC equipped with a 2 Ghz
processor, 2 GB of RAM and 160 GB hard drive will do just fine, and can be
obtained for under $1000 (including monitor).
Laptop computers will do everything that desktop computers can, and have the
added advantage of portability. There are three distinct disadvantages to a laptop,
however:
(1)A laptop tends to be substantially more expensive than a comparable
desktop model;
(2)The largest monitor size available on any laptop today is about 17” (most
computer monitors today are 19”);
(3)Laptop computers are easily stolen, and are popular with thieves.
Storage Media
Storage media is the most important element of your I.T. system, for this is where
all your vital information – text files, spreadsheets, graphics, etc. – will reside.
You’ll probably be keeping some of it on your computer’s hard drive, but it’s a very
good idea to make sure that anything and everything you work on is backed up in a
second and preferably third location.
Today, the best – and most widely used media – are rewritable CDs and DVDs. The
media itself is relatively inexpensive, and most new computers are equipped with
either a CD or DVD writer. Even if your PC lacks this accessory, external (plug-in)
DVD writers can be obtained for as little as $50 new. The media itself is also
inexpensive. Rewritable DVDs cost about $1.50 each in packs of 15, and offer a
whopping 4.7 gigabytes of data storage. Compare this to the old 3.5” floppy disks
commonly used ten years ago. These generally cost about $1 each and only
furnished about 1 megabyte of data storage – roughly .00025% of a $1.50 DVD-
RW.
That said, the 3.5” floppy is far from dead and gone. Many people still use them,
and there’s a lot of information on them. Therefore, if your computer has no floppy
disk drive, you’ll want to get an external drive, which can be purchased at any
department or office supply store for about $30.
One other popular type of storage media from the past that’s still fairly common is
the zip disk. If you’ve never seen one of these, they look like a 3.5” floppy on
steroids, and are usually gray. Depending on the type, they hold either 100 MB or
250 MB of data. Again, these drives are easy to find and are available for under
$100. (Note: make sure you purchase a zip drive for the 250 MB disk. These will
read 100 MB disks, but the drives designed for the 100 MB disk will not read the
250 MB disks.)
Another option is to get a second, external hard drive specifically for data storage.
This is a slightly more expensive option; a 250 GB external hard drive will run you
about $150. It also has the disadvantage of not being particularly portable,
although it is possible to pack one up in a briefcase and take it with you if
necessary.
When it comes to high-capacity data storage that is both inexpensive and highly
portable, you absolutely can’t beat a jump drive. Also known as a “thumb drive,” these little marvels hold up to a gigabyte of data, fit on your key ring, around your
neck or into your pocket, and go anywhere.
Although relatively expensive when they first came out, the prices on jump drives
have dropped dramatically, and a 1 GB capacity model can be purchased new for
under $50. They will continue to become cheaper and cheaper over time.
One other option for data backup is the server. Technically, a server can be any
computer that is powered up full time, is at the center of a network, and is used to
deliver information to any other computers that are hooked up to it.
If you wind up having an internal network at your place of business, chances are
you’ll have a server – and dedicating a part of that server’s hard drive to data
backup is another option. (There will be more on networking later on.)
Alternatively, if your business has a website that is hosted on an outside server, the
company that is hosting your website may allow you to back up files to their server,
or allow you additional space for this purpose for an additional monthly fee.
Some web-based companies offer stand-alone data backup services as well.
Internet Options and Communication
If you are a casual home-user of the Internet, or use it strictly for e-mail and/or
reading text articles, dial-up Internet is fine. Otherwise, don’t bother – it will lead to
endless waiting and endless frustration. At a minimum, you’ll need cable or DSL
(Digital Subscriber Line), with download speeds of at least 250 KB/second (for
comparison, dial-up is 56 KB/second). A T1 or T3 line will provide you with even
faster download speeds, but is substantially more expensive. Depending on where
you are located, you can get DSL or cable Internet service for around $50 per
month. Unfortunately, your choices may be limited – particularly if you are located
in a rural area.
Wireless Internet is another option. Some progressive cities such as Portland,
Oregon and San Francisco, California have wired their communities in such a way
that makes high-speed internet available to almost anyone with wireless
technology. Some other communities may offer this type of service for around $55
per month as well, although dependability and speed can vary.
In any event, if this seems expensive, remember that it’s a business expense that
can be taken off your yearly tax return. The cost of high-speed Internet service can
be partially offset by replacing your phone service with VoIP – “Voice over Internet
Protocol.” This essentially allows you to make telephone calls to anyplace in the
country (or the world, depending on your plan) of any duration for a flat monthly
fee. VoIP varies a great deal in price, depending on who’s furnishing the service. On
the low end, some companies charge as little as $17 per month, while others
charge as much as $35 – so again, it pays to comparison shop.
